Towards intermodal resilience: a critical review of sensor-enabled synergies between MASS and CAVs

Abstract

In the context of the ecological and digital transition of port cities, the convergence between autonomous surface ships (MASS) and connected and autonomous vehicles (CAV) represents a promising, yet largely unexplored opportunity for the creation of resilient, low-impact intermodal transport. This study reviews the literature on sensor technologies and data exchange systems currently used in smart ports—such as the OnTrack and Just-in-Time Shipping projects in Rotterdam—and analyzes their potential interoperability with autonomous mobility strategies. The OnTrack project at the port of Rotterdam, for example, was developed to optimize rail traffic management between the port and the hinterland. Thanks to this platform, operators can consult real-time information on train arrival and departure times, location, container loading/unloading status, and terminal operations progress. At the same time, the Just-in-Time Shipping project aims to reduce ship emissions and waiting times through dynamic arrival time optimization (ATA), based on geofencing and real-time digital communications with the port. Through the analysis of selected case studies, it is possible to explore how the port-city interface can be rethought thanks to distributed networks of sensors that monitor both the marine and urban environments. The review highlights how shared environmental sensors and predictive logistics made possible by BIM, IoT, and digital twin systems, could facilitate dynamic coordination between autonomous land and sea agents, improving adaptive planning and promoting sustainable mobility within complex port ecosystems.